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Trade Finance happens to be one of the classic areas of International Finance. Right from the beginning of international trade and commerce, firms and merchants always had the need for strong working capital to finance their commercial transactions on international grounds. They have also worked on various methods to mitigate possible perils that may arise in long-distance trading.
To engage in international trade, it is required to immobilize a substantial amount of capital for a really short interval of time and also involves a lot of substantial risk for both the importer as well as the exporter. The aspect of Trade Finance comprises methods and instruments that allow firms to gain capital for the purpose of funding their activities internationally and to reduce perils associated with international trade. In the past, the most common and widely used instrument for funding the trade of merchandise was the exchange bill. The use of the exchange bill was observed commonly during the medieval era. Exchange bills are written, private orders from one party to another party asking them to pay a given amount on a particular date. Since the bills can be paid on an upcoming day in the future, these are not only a way of international or national payment, but they are also credit instruments. [1] In the beginning, the bills of exchange usually consisted of distinctive assets issued by banking firms and local merchants. From the 16th Century products related to trade finance became standardized increasingly and the funding of international commerce started progressively getting centralized around the leading and successful traders from the regions of London, Antwerp and Amsterdam. In the 19th Century, this process of centralization of the market or standardization of products peaked when London became the centre of global international trade finance and there was a development of a liquid market for sterling exchange bills. During that period, a considerable amount of global trading was funded through the money market of London where investors of all types participated. [2] The structure of the market of global trade finance however disintegrated in steps followed by the pre and post-war period and its reconstruction after the year 1970 paved the way for a market which was de-centralized where products related to trade finance was locally sanctioned by banks in the countries of the importers and exporters.
OCR stands for Optical Character Recognition. This is a type of Artificial intelligence technology that will enable the automatic recognition of characters by using a mechanism of optics. Just like how a human being processes things he sees through the brain, the working mechanism of OCR is similar. Although the way OCR works has no comparison to that of how humans process data, this technology of artificial intelligence performs functions similar to that of the abilities of a human being. This software can analyze texts which are written as well as digital texts. The quality of performance output given by OCR is completely variable based on the input quality of the documents. OCR is engineered in such a way that it produces images which are entirely made out of text with a small amount of non-text clutter which can be acquired from a photo clicked by a smartphone. [3]
DLT is an acronym for Distributed Ledger Technology. This happens to be one among many gifted creations in the domain of Information Technology. This software has the ability to bring change in the collaboration and the organization of enterprises, society and the economy. It is software that records the asset’s transactions where the details of the same are not only registered and recorded in one but, in multiple databases at the same time. DLTs do not have a centralized storehouse of data rather, it decentralizes the data inputs by distributing it widely across linked databases. DLT has gained more popularity since the time it has facilitated blockchain and financial transactions. However, the usage of Distributed Ledger Technology is increasing but blockchain has received a lot of critical reviews because of the cost it bears for usage and maintenance. [4]
The MLETR offers a global framework to harmonise national laws and make it possible for electronic documents of title to be used legally both inside and outside of national borders. The MLETR expands on the fundamental tenets of functional equivalence, non-discrimination and neutrality of technology against the use of electronic means that underpin all United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) publications on electronic commerce. It permits the usage of all technologies, including distributed ledgers, tokens, and registries. The UNCITRAL is an arm of the U.N. General Assembly tasked with promoting global trade and investment. [5]
The aspects covered under the trade agreement between European Union and the United Kingdom are Digital trade, Goods and services, IPR, Aviation and road transport, public procurement, fisheries, energy, social security co-ordination judicial cooperation law enforcement in criminal matters, thematic cooperation, and participation in Union programmes. These activities are supported by clauses that guarantee respect for fundamental rights and the concept of fair play.
Respecting each other’s sovereignty and regulatory independence, the European Union and the United Kingdom shall both share rights and obligations under this cooperation agreement. The operation and enforcement of the agreement shall be governed by an institutional structure as well as by enforcement procedures related to dispute resolution. The agreement shall uphold the established principles by the European Council in April 2017 such as the obligation to safeguard the integrity and interests of the single market, the integrity of the legal system of the European Union and the indivisible nature of the four kingdoms by making sure that a non-member does not enjoy the same advantages such as that of a member.
The United Kingdom will no longer have any obligations or rights under the Withdrawal Agreement during the transition period or while it was still an EU member state on January 1, 2021. [6] It will no longer get advantages from policies and agreements of the EU, as well as from smooth access to the Single Market and Customs Union of the EU (including its free trade agreements with other third countries).
This will bring about new challenges with respect to cross-border exchanges and mobility which do not already exist in both directions, as well as to trading with services as well as goods. Public administrations, citizens, businesses, and stakeholders on both sides will unavoidably be affected, even though the new deal will serve with the motive to mitigate disruptions in comparison to a scenario without an agreement in place. Extensive Guidance has been issued by the commission on how to deal with such changes in the best way. Financial services are typically covered in the draught EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement in the same manner as they are in other Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) the EU has with third parties. Both parties are obligated by the Agreement to keep their markets open to operators from the other Party who seek to provide services through the establishment. The parties agree to make sure that nationally recognised standards for the financial services industry are carried out and applied in their respective countries. [7] The "prudential carve-out" allows both parties to implement or maintain measures for prudential considerations, such as preserving financial stability and the integrity of financial markets. A Memorandum of Understanding establishing a framework for regulatory cooperation on financial services has also been agreed upon by the parties by March 2021.
The Digitization of transferable documents will lead to:
1. Creation of £25 billion in additional economic development by 2024, with 25% more SME commerce.
2. Reducing the amount of time it takes to process documents significantly by at least 75%
3. Recycling efficiency savings that work out to at least $224 billion back into the real economy.
4. Produce £1 billion to address the needs of trade financing.
The integrity of financial markets is severely compromised by the usage of paper-based procedures for SMEs looking to conduct international business. [8] A MoU that establishes a framework for the regulatory cooperation on financial services will also be agreed upon by the parties by March 2021.
According to an economic report prepared by the CEO of Coriolis Technologies (Dr Rebecca Harding 2021), the digitization of negotiable instruments in the UK will impact trade activities by causing an increase of £24.6bn in the next few years, and by assuming that every SME will create at least 6 jobs, then the industry would eventually lead to creating 3 million new employment opportunities overall since there are approximately 530,000 exporting SMEs that exist.
The International Chamber of Commerce, G7 nations and the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific regions (UNESCAP) are calling upon governments to digitise trade documentation and to align the legal framework with the UNCITRAL Model Law on Transferrable Records (MLETR).
The trading system is governed by outdated rules and regulations, many of which date back several centuries. At any given time now, paper-based documents having a count of at least four billion circulate within the system, causing turbulences that slow down trade and impede innovation and growth. We can establish a contemporary environment of trading to support the recovery of the economy by revising and harmonising the legal frameworks. An environment that is easier, where systems and processes communicate with one another, where trade occurs in hours rather than weeks and months, and where prices are cheaper, particularly for Small and Medium Enterprises. The only way to attain this is to bring about changes in the national laws and structure them based on the UNCITRAL MLETR. [9] This business case was commissioned by the ICC United Kingdom to set out the economic case or legal reform.
The Model Law on Electronic Transferrable Records do not expressly give a definition to an electronic transferable record. In order to define what an ETR is, it is important to examine several sections of the Model law. The MLETR provides a definition for the term “transferrable document” or “instrument”. “Electronic Transferrable Record” is defined according to the model law as any electronic transferable record that satisfies all obligations given under Article 10. [10] This article is a medium through which it can be determined whether an electronic record is a transferable electronic record as per the MLETR or not. After analysing these above-mentioned articles of the model law, it is safe to define an ETR as a transferable instrument or document which is applicable under domestic law in the electric form. The MLETR does not mention or specify a list of instruments that should or can be counted as an electronic transferable record rather, it leaves it at the discretion of the enacting jurisdiction to decide whether the instrument is an electronic transferrable record or not. [11] But it is expected of the domestic legislation to include the majority of the negotiable instruments such as cheques, bills of exchange, promissory notes, negotiable bills of lading and warehouse receipts. The reason for this is that the model law exists on the assumption that there is a physical document available for every electronic existing record and the MLETR does not intend to administer an instrument for which an equivalent physical document does not exist. A transferable electronic record might exist without the MLETR as the fabrication of a pure ETR which is: an instrument that has no importance as much as that of a record on paper which would always be in need of an intention of consciousness to do so. [12] These records which are totally electronic would not require a model law to rely upon to have their validity and enforcement.
Referring to consistency with prior electronic commercial instruments under the UNCITRAL, neither does the model law create any right that is substantive, nor does it create duties that are beyond the existing laws governing instruments and documents that are negotiable other than when it comes to modifications and the change of the medium. The intention of the MLETR is to simply ensure that documents and instruments are made and maintained in electronic form and to perform electronically the same tasks that used to be/have to be through with documents and instruments that are physical in form. “Negotiability” is the core legal considerable principle for documents and instruments that are transferable which consists of negotiation itself and also the negotiation effects which is not in the scope of the MLETR. This is because the MLETR focuses on whether the record can be transferred but not on the negotiability or the understanding of the negotiability of the particular instrument or document. While looked at from this perspective, the MLETR succeeds in treating the question of fact and the question of law as two different and separate aspects. The difference between transfer and consequences of negotiation and its legal requirements is what is missing here. Although these are both not the same things, the MLETR is not and neither it is deemed to be discarded from the notion of negotiability or negotiation as the intention of the MLETR’s existence is for it to apply to negotiable instruments. Thus, even though the definition of a transferable instrument or document talks of transferability, it also has included the documents as well as the instruments being negotiable in nature as well. The necessary essentials of negotiation are subject to domestic legislations that exist to offer legal obligations that go hand in hand with the allocation and transfer of a document or an instrument.
There was constant tension amongst the working group on the question of whether the model law should be enacted and thereby leaving the parties with the choice of risk. or should it be enacted with regulatory norms? The effect of these tensions can be seen in a few provisions under the MLETR that talks about reliability which is required for a procedure that paves way for electronic records to be prepared, recognized and transferred. Article 12 of the model law sets out that the methods for creation, recognition and transfer should be:
1. Reliable and appropriate for fulfilling the purpose for which the technique is being used taking into account all the circumstances relevant which include:
2. Has been proved by the fact that it has satisfied the requirements by itself or collectively with evidence backing the same.
Article 12 moreover bestows a provable standard after the fact and also for an objective standard of dependability beforehand. Transferable electronic records represent the rights to valuable goods and money. It is also clear that parties would not use such an instrument for commercial purposes without assessing the risks that it involves while holding the title and the right to these assets. [13] The parties can best assess the risks involved by themselves and if in case, the risks involved are too high, it is up to the discretion of the parties to not use ETR or maybe they can choose to use another system instead which involves lesser risk. It is crucial to recognise that, at most, the Model Law offers the most constrained framework for authorising the use of electronic transferable records. To a large extent, the systems required to put the Model Law into practice don't yet exist and are still being developed. The Model Law is thoughtfully written in this context to allow these systems to evolve unhindered.
Aspects like transfer, creation and the claim for its performance are all part of the life cycle of a transferable electronic record. For these events to happen, the MLETR provides no regulations as such. It focuses only on those aspects within the life cycle of an ETR which might differ from another electronic record instead of comparing it with a transferable paper record. Because these modifications are concentrated upon the electronic components of the transaction rather than the basic significant norms, the MLETR lays down provisions for wherever a change occurs in the medium. The MLETR also has a clause requiring the identification of updates in digitally transferable records. [14] I think this clause definitely shouldn't be in the Model Law since it introduces a new rule of great significance that includes an information need that is not typically necessary with transferrable documents in the form of paper, as we shall discuss below. It is nonetheless included in the Model Law due to the demand of the Working Group's majority. The logic behind requesting to identify the modified information lies in the fact that while changes are easy to identify in a physical paper document, the same might not be the case when it comes to an electronic document. This is how many provisions in the MLETR are justified by claiming that the environment of electronic documents creates a special state of affairs that is not present with transactions involving paper. This, in my opinion, is an incorrect understanding of the nature of changes to negotiable papers and instruments, both in the electronic realms as well as on paper. Only the issuer has the authority to change the conditions and obligations of performance since only the issuer has responsibility for performance. Furthermore, because the performance given by the transferable record is due to the holder (or a person who takes care of an ETR), the holder is required to agree to any revisions. Amendments would be known to both the issuer and the holder because both must consent. [15] This holds true for both paper-based and digital transferrable records. Any party on the receiving end would prefer to receive the original record, in the scenario where they would be empowered with the rights and possession of the authentic work or they would receive the revised version, in which case they would be empowered to enjoy the rights of the revised version. Nonetheless, the party which is entitled to perform must be fully aware of its rights either in the case of a modified paper record or an ETR.
Early versions of the Model Law included clauses pertaining to contract freedom and party autonomy. These clauses were entirely brought over from the 2007 UN Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts and the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce. The notions of party autonomy and contractual freedom are applicable in these initial instruments of UNCITRAL because the law of contracts is the main topic of these earlier instruments. It is not immediately clear if these ideas are especially pertinent for ETR. It is upon the groups that are working whether they wish to evaluate whether the liberty of the parties is acceptable for draught provisions on how to use ETR, which would typically include the involving third parties. This was a question that was addressed during the initial draughts of the MLETR. Due to the fundamental class of contracts, these principles of contracts cannot be transferred to the MLETR. The legislation governing contracts gives the contracting parties the most latitude to arrange their self individual obligations because contracts typically do not immediately have an effect on the rights of other parties who are not part of the contract formed. [16] On the other hand, reliance on transferable electronic records may impair the rights of third parties even though the standards in the MLETR are essentially procedural norms that determine the minimal recognition of such documents. The Working Group being unable to reach an agreement on which of the regulations would have aftermath on third parties and, as a result, should not be subjected to being criticized. It is up to the parties to decide whether to employ electronic transferrable records instead of their paper counterparts. Hence, while this may imply some degree of party autonomy, it is not party autonomy as defined by contract law. This is merely a consent-to-use transferable electronic records query, which is satisfactorily answered under the consent article. The Working Group was unable to come to a consensus over which MLETR provisions are solely concerned with the utilization of electronic methods and contains sections which have some bearing on third-party rights, apart from the issue of consent to use ETR. As a result, an entirely insufficient article was produced, leaving it up to the respective jurisdiction to decide which articles should be open to the choice of the parties. In model legislation, bracketed wording would often provide some direction for the policy decisions and adopting legal hemisphere should make, but the MLETR completely avoids this. [17] The notes that explain the section provide the following alternative: Careful examination is required to determine whether MLETR provisions may be derogated from or altered by the parties. Because legal systems vary, the MLETR leaves this determination up to the enacting state. Any agreement to deviate from the norms must, according to the Model Law, "not impair the guarantees of any person even if they are not part of the arrangement." I have no idea which items ought to be considered non-derogate. It appears that including principles of contract which are not relevant at an early stage of the Model Law's formulation is what caused this issue. Instead of eliminating the entire clause on the autonomy of the party since it was unneeded and unrelated to the MLETR, the Working Group chose to leave a broken article that poses a pointless query without providing a solution. The deletion of Article 4 on the autonomy of parties and their freedom to contract, as well as the addition of a proviso stating that the parties may provide their consent for the MLETR to apply partially on them without affecting any rights of the third party, are the changes recommended. This might not provide a solution to the question of whether the legislation may be modified or rejected, but at least it concentrates on the issue of authorization to utilise transferable electronic records rather than the irrelevant issue of contractual freedom.
The topic of consent to utilise electronic commerce always sparks a lot of discussions when it is brought up. This was true when the Model Law was written. Unsurprisingly, the MLETR sensibly stipulates that it is up to the parties to decide whether to utilise traditional or electric forms of instruments and which papers to use. The Model Law further states that the use of transferrable electronic records by the parties may be taken as evidence of their choice. This clause is always the worry that some people have that parties would genuinely use electronic transportable records and then claim that they didn't have permission to do so.
Early versions of the MLETR contained a clause that acknowledged the possibility of using transferrable records as collateral in secured transactions. The fact that paper transferable documents and instruments can be during a secured transaction used as collateral means that treating electronic transferable records the same way as having the same significance legally as that of physical transferable documents and instruments made on paper naturally leads to the consensus that they are legally equivalent to paper transferable records. In the end, the Working Group came to the conclusion that such a clause was not essential because it was both clear due to Article 1(2) and beyond the parameters of the project. The MLETR on Secure transactions only provides for physical and paper-based instruments, thus Working Group VI of UNCITRAL, which focuses on having secure transactions, has suggested for it be changed to include digitally transferable records. [18] It seems like there has been no progress on this potential amendment of the Model Legislation governing Secured Transactions. Although the Model Legislation that governs Secured Transactions stipulates that collateral documents and instruments must be on paper, the MLETR stipulates that if another applicable law calls for paper instruments or documents, the MLETR effectively supersedes that requirement.
MLETR has prescribed in Article 19 that minimal advice is given for cross-border transactions. Foreign transferrable electronic records are not subject to discrimination and no legal effect, validity, or enforceability of a transferable electronic record shall be denied only because it was issued or used elsewhere. It should be noted that MLETR does not contradict or impacts the law between private individuals which consists of regulations or procedure related to digital documents. Although the MLETR is meant to serve as a guide for domestic legislation, many transactions are likely to have repercussions between different countries. This does not extend to just bills of lading, which are several times giving rise to cross-border rights but also extends to warehouse receipts and promissory notes utilised by foreign businesses for financing. [19]
According to Article 19(1), a transferable electronic document cannot be denied legal standing because it was issued or utilised outside of the country. Of course, this rule only applies in jurisdictions that have done so or would otherwise be required to apply it by the principles associated with the private international rules and regulations. Furthermore, the scene establishes that any domestic law that is mandatory in nature and does not recognise an electronic transportable record may restrict the application. The provision of Article 19(1) prescribes that the requirement should be met where the location of the transferable record is made electronically or a location that otherwise accepts the legal validity of transferable digital records, even though this requirement is not explicitly stated. [20] It is assumed that there is a legitimate transferable electronic record from the other jurisdiction to recognise in order to recognise an electronic transferable record from another jurisdiction.
The working committee skirted mostly the challenges that arouse due to the laws in conflict and provided a proper judgment that the concerns raised fell outside the ambit of the MLETR. There is nothing in this law that amends the principles of international law that govern documents or instruments of transferable electronic records as per Article 19(2).
The MLETR does not apply to transferable instruments and documents which exist in the physical paper form. It does not change the standards set according to Private international law which administers the aspect of non-electronic transferable records. Introducing a specific set of provisions between two individuals of different countries for governing relinquished electronic documents would make it inconsistent with the provisions of MLETR and its intention to not provide new rules aligning with the provisions of private international law. The question of whether electronic transferable documents should be administered by standards of private international law is still a mystery. [21] It should not be expected by the parties that the laws of conflict that apply to such documents in the physical paper mode should apply in the same way to electronic transferable documents could be a hint to the unanswered mystery. Transferable documents and instruments in the physical paper form fall under the category of the tangible property whereas, electronic documents and instruments that are transferable are intangible and should be governed by laws that govern aspects relating to intangible property. Perhaps, the best way forward will be to establish a choice of law language in the electronic documents which can be transferred and such law should be made applicable as long as the parties comply with the enforced laws and exercise their rights with diligence and care.
A legal framework is set by the Model Law on Electronic Transferable Records which is responsible for validating transferable electronic records. There is no technical guidance on how to achieve fully digital trade finance nor does it provide any type of guidance as to how the existing substantive law on instruments made out of paper can be adjusted to comply with the rules and standards of their electronic equivalents. The MLETR lays the framework and general regulations for electronic transferable records for them to be put on record, preserved and transmitted through a registration process. The presently existing technology favours the registry systems but maybe in the near future, we may expect the use of transferable tokens which cannot be reproduced. In the case of countries that have flourishing economies, this may be a heterogeneously phased and composite process. For instance, it is important to develop a warehouse first to maintain warehouse receipts. Here, it is not only about just building warehouses but also while looking at from a broader and practical perspective, it is about having the necessary infrastructure which would be enough to transfer goods to and fro warehouses. Whereas, warehouse receipts which are in electronic form require a governing law and also an adequate amount of resources in order to create registries that allow keeping notes of the transferable electronic records. There is no shortage of technology that is required for the usage of ETR but so far the usage of such technology was only observed in closed systems. The real task issue with is to establish a directory that yields open systems.
The Aircraft Registry of Cape Town can be considered a relevant model here. As we can see, the registry is quite costly not only just to set up but also to maintain it. For using this registry there will be a requirement of industry support which is broad and this can only happen when the fiscal gains warrant it. So far as observed, so has not been the case so far. The MLETR lays out the fundamental legal framework for the electronic transfer of records and the triumph of the MLETR will only be based on whether the mode of operation of the business provides helps generate enough revenue to bear the costs incurred by the usage of relevant technology for the electronic transfer of records.
European Commission (n.d), Questions and Answers: EU and UK trade co-operation agreement. URL:https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/qanda_20_2532
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Olivier Accominotti & Stefano Ugolini (2020). International trade finance from the origins to the present: market structures, regulation and governance. arXiv preprint arXiv:2009.08668. URL: https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/102191/1/Accominotti_history_of_international_trade_finance_accepted.pdf
JaeBin Ahn (2020), "A Theory of Domestic and International Trade Finance", Jeon, B.N. and Wu, J. (Ed.) Emerging Market Finance: New Challenges and Opportunities (International Finance Review, Vol. 21), Emerald Publishing Limited, Bingley, pp. 203-229. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1569-376720200000021012
Pol Antras & C. Fritz Foley (2015). Poultry in Motion: A Study of International Trade Finance Practices. Journal of Political Economy, 123(4), 853–901. Doi: http://doi.org/10.1086/681592
Marc Auboin (2007). Boosting trade finance in developing countries: What link with the WTO?. URL: https://deliverypdf.ssrn.com/delivery.php?ID=029123122124118020123065108005087086046017064042000030023123072104123097009109027098059042125003033000013009020072016080067081045061037061029015101122100065102068046061084090106007102026071121074113106022026087093014119108028071074110074118021101024&EXT=pdf&INDEX=TRUE
Dr. Rebecca Harding (2021), International Chamber of Commerce: Economic Research Report, Creating a Modern Digital Trade Ecosystem. URL: https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/msmes_e/iccuk_240621.pdf
Henry D. Gabriel. (2019). THE UNCITRAL model law on electronic transferable records. Uniform Law Review. doi:10.1093/ulr/unz013. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ulr/unz013
Michal Kowalski, Zach W.Y Lee & Tommy K.H Chan (2021). Blockchain technology and trust relationships in trade finance. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 166, 120641. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.120641
Umar Oseni (2013), "Towards restructuring the legal framework for payment system in international Islamic trade finance", Journal of International Trade Law and Policy, Vol. 12 No. 2, pp. 108-129. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JITLP-10-2012-0016
Maria I. Smolka-Day (1990). Bibliographic Guide to the Legal Aspects of International Finance. International Journal of Legal Information, 18(3), 205-214. doi:http://doi.org/10.1017/S0731126500006594
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Nabil El Ioini & Claus Pahl (2018). A Review of Distributed Ledger Technologies. On the Move to Meaningful Internet Systems. OTM 2018 Conferences, 277–288. DOI: http://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02671-4_16
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